Rich Shepard wrote: >>this is the point: without the lyx-file or the exported tex it's not >>possible to say what's going here. It's obvious that the code is wrong and >>that you forget a } or something else. >> > > This is my point: I've not put in any LaTeX code, just selected table from > the menus. > > File is attached.
multicolumn in the table makes only sense, if you have _really_ multicolumns or something special in the table. But you wanted only a fixed wisth with left alignment. file attached Herbert -- http://www.lyx.org/help/
#LyX 1.1 created this file. For more info see http://www.lyx.org/ \lyxformat 218 \textclass article \begin_preamble \date{} \end_preamble \language english \inputencoding auto \fontscheme palatino \graphics default \float_placement !h \paperfontsize 10 \spacing single \papersize Default \paperpackage a4 \use_geometry 0 \use_amsmath 0 \paperorientation portrait \secnumdepth 3 \tocdepth 3 \paragraph_separation indent \defskip medskip \quotes_language english \quotes_times 2 \papercolumns 1 \papersides 2 \paperpagestyle fancy \layout Title Wetlands and Mining \begin_float footnote \layout Standard Copyright \latex latex \backslash copyright \latex default 2002 Applied Ecosystem Services, Inc. \end_float \layout Author Dr. Richard B. Shepard \begin_float footnote \layout Standard President, Applied Ecosystem Services, Inc., Troutdale, OR 97060 \end_float \layout Section* Introduction \layout Standard The regulatory requirements for protecting wetlands or mitigating wetland impacts can be expensive and time consuming. In addition, the permitting process creates a potential bottleneck to developme nt of a project. The problem many people have is knowing what is and what is not a wetland. In those areas where wetlands tend to be seasonal, people can have a particular ly difficult time identifying wetlands. This white paper explains the criteria and methods used to identify wetlands, wetland functions and values and how mining can result in better quality wetlands when reclamation has been completed. \layout Subsection* Types of Wetlands \layout Standard Wetlands are the inundated or saturated transitional areas between uplands and aquatic systems. Thus, floodplains of rivers and shorelines of lakes often have characteristics of wetlands. Those areas we call bogs, swamps, or marshes are wetlands. In addition, open meadows and fields, as well as roadside ditches and drainage swales, often have the characteristics most of us recognize as wetlands. Even wooded areas and forests at high elevation have wetlands in them. \layout Standard In the late 1970s, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) developed a wetland classification system. \begin_float footnote \layout Standard Cowardin, L. M., V. Carter, F. C. Golet, and E. T. LaRoe. 1979. Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Biological Services, Washington, D.C. FWS/OBS-79/31. \end_float This system is still used today and is seen most often on the National Wetland Inventory (NWI) maps prepared by the USFWS. \layout Standard The NWI maps were developed to assist communities, businesses, and individuals in locating wetlands in their area of the country. These maps were developed from high-altitude aerial photographs. Trained photo interpreters marked wetland boundaries and types on the photograp hs. \layout Standard Because most photographs were taken during the winter when deciduous trees were leafless, NWI maps for wet areas of the country (such as the Pacific Northwest) often show more wetlands than actually exist. Similarly, many small wetlands do not appear on the maps because they were too small to be seen or were hidden from the camera's view. In the process of determining and delineating wetlands, the NWI maps are only a coarse first approximation. \layout Standard Site-specific surveys are always required to verify the existence of wetlands shown on NWI maps. Fortunately, many communities, particularly those that are rapidly expanding, have conducted more intensive surveys for wetlands in their jurisdictions. \layout Subsection* Identifying Wetlands \layout Standard Many people mistakenly believe that all wetlands are wet all the time. Many wetlands are wet all year long; however, a lot of wetlands are wet only during a few weeks of the growing season and dry the rest of the year. Because these areas are dry most of the year, people often ask, \begin_inset Quotes eld \end_inset How wet does an area have to be before we can call it a wetland? \begin_inset Quotes erd \end_inset And, \begin_inset Quotes eld \end_inset how does one determine where the wetland stops and the uplands begin? \begin_inset Quotes erd \end_inset \layout Standard The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) jointly define wetlands as "Those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions" [3]. The phrase "normal circumstances" in the definition is important, because hydrology, soils, and vegetation can be altered in some areas reducing or eliminating the presence of wetland indicators. \layout Standard Atypical situations exist when one or more of the parameters (hydrology, soils, and vegetation) have been sufficiently altered by human activities or natural events to preclude the presence of wetland indicators. Wetland delineations on agricultural lands (one of the more common atypical situations) often require different procedures than those found in the 1987 Manual and these procedures may differ among the districts of the Corps. \layout Standard The standard criteria for delineating wetlands in the United States is contained in the Corps of Engineers Wetlands Delineation Manual or more commonly known as the 1987 Manual \begin_float footnote \layout Standard U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Environmental Laboratory. 1987. Corps of Engineers wetlands delineation manual. Technical Report Y-87-1. \end_float . Other manuals have been developed (e.g., the 1989 Manual) but they are rarely used. \layout Standard Three parameters are used to identify wetlands and delineate wetland boundaries. These parameters are hydrology (water), soils, and vegetation. For an area to be classified as a wetland, it must have at least one positive indicator for wetland hydrology, wetland soils, and wetland vegetation. \layout Subsubsection* Wetland Hydrology \layout Standard The criteria for wetland hydrology does not contain specific values for duration, frequency, and depth of soil saturation. Specific values are not appropriate because conditions vary so much from site to site across the country. Nevertheless, areas typically considered to have wetland hydrology must be inundated or saturated within a major portion of the root zone (usually within 12 inches of the surface) for at least 5 percent of the growing season (about 10 days to 2 weeks). The growing season is defined as \begin_inset Quotes eld \end_inset the portion of the year when soil temperatures at 19.7 inches (50 cm) below the soil surface are higher than biologic zero (5o C/41o F) \begin_inset Quotes erd \end_inset . The growing season can be approximated by the number of frost-free days. \layout Standard Wetland hydrology criteria can be confusing. The 1987 Manual states, \begin_inset Quotes eld \end_inset Areas with evident characteristics of wetland hydrology are those where the presence of water has an overriding influence on characteristics of vegetation and soils due to anaerobic and reducing conditions, respectively. \begin_inset Quotes erd \end_inset \layout Standard This is circular reasoning, which leads to the confusion. The three parameters are without a doubt highly interconnected. The reason the wetland hydrology criteria exists is to confirm that current hydrologic conditions are the basis for the vegetation and soil characteristics observed at the site and that these characteristics are not remnants from a time when the site was wetter. Areas that were once wetlands but were drained may still have vegetation and soils characteristics that satisfy the 1987 Manual criteria for wetland vegetation and soils. However, the area cannot be considered a wetland unless the wetland hydrology criteria can be satisfied. \layout Standard Indicators used to determined whether wetland hydrology exists include visual observation of inundation or saturation, watermarks, drift lines, sediment deposits, drainage patterns, and oxidized rhizospheres with living roots. Oxidized rhizospheres are defined as yellowish-red zones around roots and rhizomes of some plants that grow in frequently saturated soils. \layout Subsubsection* Wetland Soils \layout Standard Soils found in wetlands (hydric soils) have characteristics quite different from soils found in uplands. These characteristics develop because of the anaerobic conditions that result from frequent or prolonged saturation of the soil. The two most obvious characteristics of wetland soils are gleying and mottling. Gleyed soils are found in areas with prolonged inundation or saturation during the growing season. These soils are identified by their bluish, greenish, or grayish color \layout Standard Mottling is used to describe areas of contrasting color within the soil. Mottling occurs in soils that have also been inundated or saturated during the growing season but not long enough to produce gleyed soils. Soils with brightly-colored mottles and a soil matrix (the dominant color) of a contrasting color are indicative of soils with a fluctuating water table. \layout Standard The first step in determining whether or not the soil at a site is a hydric soil is to examine the soil survey for the area published by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service). The soil survey indicates the soil type in addition to providing useful information about soil permeability, soil texture, soil color, associated soil types, and the natural vegetation commonly found growing on each soil type. \layout Standard Next, the official list of hydric soils maintained by the National Technical Committee for Hydric Soils should be checked to see whether or not the soil at the site is listed as a hydric soil. If so, then the soil type only needs to be confirmed in the field to satisfy the wetland soil criteria. If not, then the soil must be examined for the presence of hydric soil indicators. \layout Standard Indicators of hydric soils include high levels of organic matter content in the surface horizons, sulfidic material or rotten egg odor, soil color (gleying or mottling), and iron and manganese concretions. These indicators develop as a result of frequent and prolonged saturation or inundation during the growing season. However, caution must be exercised because the parent geology of a soil can significantly affect the formation or visibility of some of the hydric soil indicators. Soil color is the most commonly used indicator. \layout Subsubsection* Wetland Vegetation \layout Standard Plants found in wetlands differ from other plant species by being able to survive in soils that are inundated or saturated for extended periods during the growing season. This survival usually results from special adaptations developed by wetland plants that allows them to cope with the anaerobic conditions present in wetland soils. Upland species typically cannot survive in wetlands because their roots need a constant supply of oxygen. \layout Standard The USFWS maintains a list of plant species that occur in wetlands. \begin_float footnote \layout Standard Reed, P.B. Jr. 1988. National list of plant species that occur in wetlands: northwest (region 9). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, St. Petersburg, FL. Biological Report 88(26.9). \end_float The USFWS uses five categories to distinguish between plants that are always found in wetlands, may be found in wetlands, and usually not found in wetlands (Table 1). \layout Standard To determine whether or not the wetland vegetation criterion is met, the plant species in each vegetative stratum (herbaceous or non-woody, shrub, and tree) are identified. From this list, the dominant plant species in each stratum are determined. If more than 50 percent of the dominant species are FAC, FACW, or OBL species (see Table 1), then the wetland vegetation criterion is met. \layout Standard Vegetation has been significantly altered in many areas (an atypical situation), so it is not always a reliable indicator of the presence of a wetland. When these atypical situations exist, the vegetation criteria is thrown out and the delineation is based entirely on the wetland hydrology and soils criteria. Often undisturbed areas exist nearby which can be used to provide clues as to the vegetation likely to occur in the area. \layout Subsection* Delineating a Wetland \layout Standard Once an area has been determined to be a wetland, it is necessary to establish the wetland's boundary. Unless the wetland is confined by a stream bank, dike, road, or some other feature, the wetland \begin_inset Quotes eld \end_inset edge \begin_inset Quotes erd \end_inset is usually a diffuse transition zone. Soil pits are dug to determine where the hydric soil indicators stop. Then, the presence of wetland vegetation and hydrology are examined. The boundary is set where indicators for any one of the three parameters no longer exists. Procedures for atypical situations are slightly different. The investigator's experience is used to decide just where to place the boundary flags. Once the boundary has been defined the most efficient and cost-effective way of recording the boundary is to use a calibrated global positioning system (GPS) receiver and post-process the data to correct the position of the flags to within a 1-meter (3.3-foot) accuracy. Because most wetland boundaries are diffuse transition zones, this degree of accuracy is typically sufficient. \layout Standard \begin_float tab \layout Caption Wetland indicator categories used by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to describe the likelihood of finding a specific plant species in a wetland. \layout Standard \begin_inset Tabular <lyxtabular version="2" rows="6" columns="2"> <features rotate="false" islongtable="false" endhead="0" endfirsthead="0" endfoot="0" endlastfoot="0"> <column alignment="center" valignment="top" leftline="true" rightline="false" width="" special=""> <column alignment="left" valignment="top" leftline="true" rightline="true" width="3.5in" special=""> <row topline="true" bottomline="true" newpage="false"> <cell multicolumn="0" alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="false" leftline="true" rightline="false" rotate="false" usebox="none" width="" special=""> \begin_inset Text \layout Standard Indicator Code \end_inset </cell> <cell multicolumn="0" alignment="left" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="false" leftline="true" rightline="true" rotate="false" usebox="none" width="" special=""> \begin_inset Text \layout Standard Status \end_inset </cell> </row> <row topline="true" bottomline="false" newpage="false"> <cell multicolumn="0" alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="false" leftline="true" rightline="false" rotate="false" usebox="none" width="" special=""> \begin_inset Text \layout Standard OBL \end_inset </cell> <cell multicolumn="0" alignment="left" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="false" leftline="true" rightline="true" rotate="false" usebox="none" width="4in" special="left"> \begin_inset Text \layout Standard Obligate wetland plants. Plants that occur almost always (>99% probability) in wetlands. \end_inset </cell> </row> <row topline="true" bottomline="false" newpage="false"> <cell multicolumn="0" alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="false" leftline="true" rightline="false" rotate="false" usebox="none" width="" special=""> \begin_inset Text \layout Standard FACW \end_inset </cell> <cell multicolumn="0" alignment="left" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="false" leftline="true" rightline="true" rotate="false" usebox="none" width="4in" special="left"> \begin_inset Text \layout Standard Facultative wetland plants. Plants that occur usually (>67% to 99% probability) in wetlands, but also occur in non-wetlands. \end_inset </cell> </row> <row topline="true" bottomline="false" newpage="false"> <cell multicolumn="0" alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="false" leftline="true" rightline="false" rotate="false" usebox="none" width="" special=""> \begin_inset Text \layout Standard FAC \end_inset </cell> <cell multicolumn="0" alignment="left" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="false" leftline="true" rightline="true" rotate="false" usebox="none" width="4in" special="left"> \begin_inset Text \layout Standard Facultative plants. Plants with a similar likelihood of occurring in wetlands and non-wetlands. \end_inset </cell> </row> <row topline="true" bottomline="false" newpage="false"> <cell multicolumn="0" alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="false" leftline="true" rightline="false" rotate="false" usebox="none" width="" special=""> \begin_inset Text \layout Standard FACU \end_inset </cell> <cell multicolumn="0" alignment="left" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="false" leftline="true" rightline="true" rotate="false" usebox="none" width="4in" special="left"> \begin_inset Text \layout Standard Facultative upland plants. Plants that occur sometimes (1% to <33% probability) in wetlands, but occur more often in non-wetlands. \end_inset </cell> </row> <row topline="true" bottomline="true" newpage="false"> <cell multicolumn="0" alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="false" leftline="true" rightline="false" rotate="false" usebox="none" width="" special=""> \begin_inset Text \layout Standard UPL \end_inset </cell> <cell multicolumn="0" alignment="left" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" rotate="false" usebox="none" width="4in" special="left"> \begin_inset Text \layout Standard Obligate upland plants. Plants that occur rarely (<1% probability) in wetlands, but occur almost always in non-wetlands. \end_inset </cell> </row> </lyxtabular> \end_inset \end_float \the_end
