I got it fixed manually. What I did was:

mv /etc/mysql/my.cnf.migrated /etc/mysql/conf.d/custom.cnf
cd /etc/alternatives
rm my.cnf
ln -s /etc/mysql/my.cnf.fallback my.cnf

As dpkg --configure -a still threw errors in the manner of

2016-10-25T09:06:10.251866Z 0 [ERROR] unknown variable 'log=/var/log/mysql.log'
2016-10-25T09:07:29.715102Z 0 [ERROR] unknown variable 'thread_concurrency=8'
2016-10-25T09:07:53.726055Z 0 [ERROR] unknown variable 'innodb_use_sys_malloc=0'

I removed the corresponding lines from my custom configuration in
/etc/mysql/conf.d/custom.cnf

After that, dpkg --configure -a was running without errors and thereby
successfully converted the tablespaces to their new binary
representation

dpkg --configure -a
mysql-server-5.7 (5.7.15-0ubuntu0.16.04.1) wird eingerichtet ...
Renaming removed key_buffer and myisam-recover options (if present)
mysql start/running, process 12050
mysql stop/waiting
mysql start/running, process 12410
Checking if update is needed.
Checking server version.
Running queries to upgrade MySQL server.
Checking system database.
mysql.columns_priv                                 OK
mysql.db                                           OK
mysql.engine_cost                                  OK
mysql.event                                        OK
[...]
Checking if update is needed.
mysql stop/waiting
mysql start/running, process 12647
mysql-server (5.7.15-0ubuntu0.16.04.1) wird eingerichtet ...

After that, MySQL is up and running again.

In the end I assume that the original error was just that the three
lines had to be removed from /etc/mysql/my.cnf.migrated. That would have
allowed the ubuntu major release update to run through smoothly and
without manual intervention. An improvement would have been to just
ignore these lines, even if they exist (with the potential of severe
damage in other cases, of course).

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https://bugs.launchpad.net/bugs/1636328

Title:
  package mysql-hostname-5.7 5.7.15-0ubuntu0.16.04.1 failed to
  install/upgrade: Unterprozess installiertes post-installation-Skript
  gab den Fehlerwert 1 zurück

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