On 13.5 a wal flush PANIC is encountered after a standby is promoted.
With debugging, it was found that when a standby skips a missing continuation
record on recovery, the missingContrecPtr is not invalidated after the record
is skipped. Therefore, when the standby is promoted to a primary it wr
>Ooh, nice find and diagnosys. I can confirm that the test fails as you
>described without the code fix, and doesn't fail with it.
>I attach the same patch, with the test file put in its final place
>rather than as a patch. Due to recent xlog.c changes this need a bit of
>wor
+
+
+ indexes_total bigint
+
+
+ The number of indexes to be processed in the
+ vacuuming indexes or cleaning up
indexes phase
+ of the vacuum.
+
+
+
+
+
+ indexes_pro
>Nice catch! However, I'm not sure I like the patch.
> * made it through and start writing after the portion that
> persisted.
> * (It's critical to first write an OVERWRITE_CONTRECORD message,
> which
> * we'll do as soon as we're open for writing new WA
> On Wed, Feb 23, 2022 at 10:02 AM Imseih (AWS), Sami
wrote:
>> If the failsafe kicks in midway through a vacuum, the number
indexes_total will not be reset to 0. If INDEX_CLEANUP is turned off, then the
value will be 0 at the start of the vacuum.
>
> The way
++/*
++ * vacuum_worker_init --- initialize this module's shared memory hash
++ * to track the progress of a vacuum worker
++ */
++void
++vacuum_worker_init(void)
++{
++ HASHCTL info;
++ longmax_table_size = GetMaxBackends();
++
++
>Indeed.
>It might have already been discussed but other than using a new shmem
>hash for parallel vacuum, I wonder if we can allow workers to change
>the leader’s progress information. It would break the assumption that
>the backend status entry is modified by its own backend,
>I think if it's a better approach we can do that including adding a
>new infrastructure for it.
+1 This is a beneficial idea, especially to other progress reporting, but I see
this as a separate thread targeting the next major version.
>I took a look at the latest patch set.
>+
>+ indexes_total bigint
>+
>+
>+ The number of indexes to be processed in the
>+ vacuuming indexes
>+ or cleaning up indexes phase. It is set to
>+ 0 when vacuum is not in
> > BTreeShmemInit();
> > SyncScanShmemInit();
> > AsyncShmemInit();
> > + vacuum_worker_init();
> > Don't we also need to add the size of the hash table to
> > CalculateShmemSize()?
> No, ShmemInitHash takes the min and max size o
>I'm still unsure the current design of 0001 patch is better than other
>approaches we’ve discussed. Even users who don't use parallel vacuum
>are forced to allocate shared memory for index vacuum progress, with
>GetMaxBackends() entries from the beginning. Also, it’s likely to
>
The current version of the patch does not apply, so I could not test it.
Here are some comments I have.
Pgbench is a simple benchmark tool by design, and I wonder if adding
a multiconnect feature will cause pgbench to be used incorrectly.
A real world use-case will be helpful for this thread.
F
I looked at your patch and it's a good idea to make foreign key validation
use parallel query on large relations.
It would be valuable to add logging to ensure that the ActiveSnapshot and
TransactionSnapshot
is the same for the leader and the workers. This logging could be tested in the
TAP tes
>BTW have we discussed another idea I mentioned before that we have the
>leader process periodically check the number of completed indexes and
>advertise it in its progress information? I'm not sure which one is
>better but this idea would require only changes of vacuum code and
>
>Can the leader pass a callback that checks PVIndStats to ambulkdelete
>an amvacuumcleanup callbacks? I think that in the passed callback, the
>leader checks if the number of processed indexes and updates its
>progress information if the current progress needs to be updated.
Thanks
I also want to +1 this this effort. Exposing subtransaction usage is very
useful.
It would also be extremely beneficial to add both subtransaction usage and
overflow counters to pg_stat_database.
Monitoring tools that capture deltas on pg_stat_database will be able to
generate historical anal
On 12/15/21, 4:10 PM, "Bossart, Nathan" wrote:
On 12/1/21, 3:02 PM, "Imseih (AWS), Sami" wrote:
> The current implementation of pg_stat_progress_vacuum does not
> provide progress on which index is being vacuumed making it
> difficult for a user t
I do agree that tracking progress by # of blocks scanned is not deterministic
for all index types.
Based on this feedback, I went back to the drawing board on this.
Something like below may make more sense.
In pg_stat_progress_vacuum, introduce 2 new columns:
1. total_index_vacuum - total #
. Removing it also reduces the
complexity of the patch.
On 1/6/22, 2:41 PM, "Bossart, Nathan" wrote:
On 12/29/21, 8:44 AM, "Imseih (AWS), Sami" wrote:
> In "pg_stat_progress_vacuum", introduce 2 columns:
>
> * total_index_vacuum :
ot; has been removed.
"index_rows_vacuumed" renamed to "index_tuples_removed". "tuples" is a more
consistent with the terminology used.
"vacuum_cycle_ordinal_position" renamed to "index_ordinal_position".
On 1/10/22, 12:30 PM, "Bossart, Nathan" wrote:
On 1/11/22, 1:01 PM, "Bossart, Nathan" wrote:
On 1/10/22, 5:01 PM, "Imseih (AWS), Sami" wrote:
> I have attached the 3rd revision of the patch which also includes the
documentation changes. Also attached is a rendered html
On 1/12/22, 1:28 PM, "Bossart, Nathan" wrote:
On 1/11/22, 11:46 PM, "Masahiko Sawada" wrote:
> Regarding the new pg_stat_progress_vacuum_index view, why do we need
> to have a separate view? Users will have to check two views. If this
> view is expected to be used together with a
Replacing constants in pg_stat_statements is on a best effort basis.
It is not unlikely that on a busy workload with heavy entry deallocation,
the user may observe the query with the constants in pg_stat_statements.
From what I can see, this is because the only time an entry is normalized is
durin
>> Could things be done in a more stable way? For example, imagine that
>> we have an extra Query field called void *private_data that extensions
>> can use to store custom data associated to a query ID, then we could
>> do something like that:
>> - In the post-analyze hook, ch
>On Sat, Feb 25, 2023 at 01:59:04PM +0000, Imseih (AWS), Sami wrote:>
>> The overhead of storing this additional private data for the life of the
> query
>> execution may not be desirable.
>Okay, but why?
Additional memory to maintain the JumbleState da
> I am OK with an addition to the documentation to warn that one may
> have to increase the maximum number of entries that can be stored if
> seeing a non-normalized entry that should have been normalized.
I agree. We introduce the concept of a plannable statement in a
previous section and we can
> +
> + Queries on which normalization can be applied may be observed with constant
> + values in pg_stat_statements, especially when there
> + is a high rate of entry deallocations. To reduce the likelihood of this
> + happening, consider increasing pg_stat_statements.max.
> + The pg_stat_stateme
> Well, it is one of these areas where it seems to me we have never been
> able to put a definition on what should be the correct behavior when
> it comes to pg_stat_statements.
What needs to be defined here is how pgss should account for # of rows
processed when A) a select goes through extended
I am wondering if this patch should be backpatched?
The reason being is in auto_explain documentation [1],
there is a claim of equivalence of the auto_explain.log_verbose
option and EXPLAIN(verbose)
". it's equivalent to the VERBOSE option of EXPLAIN."
This can be quite confusing for users o
> > It's a bit annoying that the info is missing since pg 14, but we
> > probably can't
> > backpatch this as it might break log parser tools.
> What do you think?
That's a good point about log parsing tools, i.e. pgbadger.
Backpatching does not sounds to appealing to me after
giving this a sec
> >>> Now I've a second thought: what do you think about resetting the related
> >>> number
> >>> of operations and *_time fields when enabling/disabling track_io_timing?
> >>> (And mention it in the doc).
> >>>
> >>> That way it'd prevent bad interpretation (at least as far the time per
> >>> o
> If I remove this patch and recompile again, then "initdb -D $PGDATA" works.
It appears you must "make clean; make install" to correctly compile after
applying the patch.
Regards,
Sami Imseih
Amazon Web Services (AWS)
Sorry about the delay in response about this.
I was thinking about this and it seems to me we can avoid
adding new fields to Estate. I think a better place to track
rows and calls is in the Instrumentation struct.
--- a/src/include/executor/instrument.h
+++ b/src/include/executor/instrument.h
@@
> This indeed feels a bit more natural seen from here, after looking at
> the code paths using an Instrumentation in the executor and explain,
> for example. At least, this stresses me much less than adding 16
> bytes to EState for something restricted to the extended protocol when
> it comes to mo
> What about using an uint64 for calls? That seems more appropriate to me (even
> if
> queryDesc->totaltime->calls will be passed (which is int64), but that's
> already
> also the case for the "rows" argument and
> queryDesc->totaltime->rows_processed)
That's fair
> I'm not sure it's worth me
> How does JDBC test that? Does it have a dependency on
> pg_stat_statements?
No, at the start of the thread, a sample jdbc script was attached.
But I agree, we need to add test coverage. See below.
>> But, I'm tempted to say that adding new tests could be addressed
>> separately though (as this
> I wonder that this patch changes the meaning of "calls" in the
> pg_stat_statement
> view a bit; previously it was "Number of times the statement was executed" as
> described in the documentation, but currently this means "Number of times the
> portal was executed". I'm worried that this makes u
Hi,
Thanks for working on this.
I have a few comments about the current patch.
1/ I looked through other psql-meta commands and the “+” adds details but
does not change output format. In this patch, conninfo and conninfo+
have completely different output. The former is a string with all the deta
Thank you for the updated patch.
First and foremost, thank you very much for the review.
> The initial and central idea was always to keep the metacommand
> "\conninfo" in its original state, that is, to preserve the string as it is.
> The idea of "\conninfo+" is to expand this to include more in
>. However,
> I didn't complete item 4. I'm not sure, but I believe that linking it to the
> documentation
> could confuse the user a bit. I chose to keep the descriptions as they were.
> However, if
> you have any ideas on how we could outline it, let me know and perhaps we can
> implement it.
> That minor point aside, I disagree with Sami about repeating the docs
> for system_user() here. I would just say "The authentication data
> provided for this connection; see the function system_user() for more
> details."
+1. FWIW; Up the thread [1], I did mention we should link to the function
> Here I considered your suggestion (Sami and Álvaro's). However, I haven't yet
> added the links for the functions system_user(), current_user(), and
> session_user().
> 'm not sure how to do it. Any suggestion on how to create/add the link?
Here is an example [1] where the session information f
Building the docs fail for v26. The error is:
ref/psql-ref.sgml:1042: element member: validity error : Element term is not
declared in member list of possible children
^
I am able to build up to v24 before the was replaced with
I tested building with a mod
> The point about application_name is a valid one. I guess it's there
> because it's commonly given from the client side rather than being set
>server-side, even though it's still a GUC. Arguably we could remove it
> from \conninfo+, and claim that nothing that shows up in \dconfig should
> also ap
> The original \conninfo was designed to report values from the libpq API
> about what libpq connected to. And the convention in psql is that "+"
> provide more or less the same information but a bit more. So I think it
> is wrong to make "\conninfo+" something fundamentally different than
> "\conn
Thanks for the feedback. I agree with the feedback, except
for
>need to have ParallelVacuumProgress. I see
>parallel_vacuum_update_progress() uses this value but I think it's
>better to pass ParallelVacuumState to via IndexVacuumInfo.
I was trying to avoid passing a pointer to
Parall
>First of all, I don't think we need to declare ParallelVacuumProgress
>in vacuum.c since it's set and used only in vacuumparallel.c. But I
>don't even think it's a good idea to declare it in vacuumparallel.c as
>a static variable. The primary reason is that it adds things we need
>
Attached is a patch to check scanned pages rather
than blockno.
Regards,
Sami Imseih
Amazon Web Services (AWS)
v1-0001-fixed-when-wraparound-failsafe-is-checked.patch
Description: v1-0001-fixed-when-wraparound-failsafe-is-checked.patch
>I adjusted the FAILSAFE_EVERY_PAGES comments, which now point out that
>FAILSAFE_EVERY_PAGES is a power-of-two. The implication is that the
>compiler is all but guaranteed to be able to reduce the modulo
>division into a shift in the lazy_scan_heap loop, at the point of the
>fa
>cfbot is complaining that this patch no longer applies. Sami, would you
>mind rebasing it?
Rebased patch attached.
--
Sami Imseih
Amazon Web Services: https://aws.amazon.com
v18-0001-Add-2-new-columns-to-pg_stat_progress_vacuum.-Th.patch
Description: v18-0001-Add-2-new-columns-to
> cirrus-ci.com/task/4557389261701120
I earlier compiled without building with --enable-cassert,
which is why the compilation errors did not produce on my
buid.
Fixed in v19.
Thanks
--
Sami Imseih
Amazon Web Services: https://aws.amazon.com
v19-0001-Add-2-new-columns-to-pg_stat_progres
Thanks for the review!
Addressed the comments.
> "Increment the indexes completed." (dot at the end) instead?
Used the commenting format being used in other places in this
file with an inclusion of a double-dash. i.,e.
/* Wraparound emergency -- end current index scan */
> It seems to me that "
>Similar to above three cases, vacuum can bypass index vacuuming if
>there are almost zero TIDs. Should we set indexes_total to 0 in this
>case too? If so, I think we can set both indexes_total and
>indexes_completed at the beginning of the index vacuuming/cleanup and
>reset the
> My point is whether we should show
> indexes_total throughout the vacuum execution (even also in not
> relevant phases such as heap scanning/vacuum/truncation).
That is a good point. We should only show indexes_total
and indexes_completed only during the relevant phases.
V21 addresses this alo
Thanks for the feedback and I apologize for the delay in response.
>I think the problem here is that you're basically trying to work around the
>lack of an asynchronous state update mechanism between leader and workers.
> The
>workaround is to add a lot of different places that poll w
> So... The idea here is to set a custom fetch size so as the number of
> calls can be deterministic in the tests, still more than 1 for the
> tests we'd have. And your point is that libpq enforces always 0 when
> sending the EXECUTE message causing it to always return all the rows
> for any call
> * Yeah, it'd be nice to have an in-core test, but it's folly to insist
> on one that works via libpq and psql. That requires a whole new set
> of features that you're apparently designing on-the-fly with no other
> use cases in mind. I don't think that will accomplish much except to
> ensure that
> Why should that be the definition? Partial execution of a portal
> might be something that is happening at the driver level, behind the
> user's back. You can't make rational calculations of, say, plan
> time versus execution time if that's how "calls" is measured.
Correct, and there are also dr
> Maybe, but is there any field demand for that?
I don't think there is.
> We clearly do need to fix the
> reported rowcount for cases where ExecutorRun is invoked more than
> once per ExecutorEnd call; but I think that's sufficient.
Sure, the original proposed fix, but with tracking the es_tota
> I was looking back at this thread, and the suggestion to use one field
> in EState sounds fine to me. Sami, would you like to send a new
> version of the patch (simplified version based on v1)?
Here is v4.
The "calls" tracking is removed from Estate. Unlike v1 however,
I added a check for the o
> Doing nothing for calls now is fine by me, though I
> agree that this could be improved at some point, as seeing only 1
> rather than N for each fetch depending on the size is a bit confusing.
I think we will need to clearly define what "calls" is. Perhaps as mentioned
above, we may need separat
> > The key point of the patch is here. From what I understand based on
> > the information of the thread, this is used as a way to make the
> progress reporting done by the leader more responsive so as we'd
> > update the index counters each time the leader is poked at with a 'P'
> > message by on
> Makes sense to me. I'll look at that again today, potentially apply
> the fix on HEAD.
Here is v6. That was my mistake not to zero out the es_total_processed.
I had it in the first version.
--
Regards,
Sami Imseih
Amazon Web Services (AWS)
v6-0001-Fix-row-tracking-in-pg_stat_statements.pat
> As one thing,
> for example, it introduces a dependency to parallel.h to do progress
> reporting without touching at backend_progress.h.
Containing the logic in backend_progress.h is a reasonable point
from a maintenance standpoint.
We can create a new function in backend_progress.h called
p
> The arguments of pgstat_progress_update_param() would be given by the
> worker directly as components of the 'P' message. It seems to me that
> this approach would have the simplicity to not require the setup of a
> shmem area for the extra counters, and there would be no need for a
> callback. H
> + case 'P': /* Parallel progress reporting */
I kept this comment as-is but inside case code block I added
more comments. This is to avoid cluttering up the one-liner comment.
> + * Increase and report the number of index scans. Also, we reset the progress
> + * counters.
> The counters rese
> This should be OK (also checked the code paths where the reports are
> added). Note that the patch needed a few adjustments for its
> indentation.
Thanks for the formatting corrections! This looks good to me.
--
Sami
Hi,
I recently noticed the following in the work_mem [1] documentation:
“Note that for a complex query, several sort or hash operations might be
running in parallel;”
The use of “parallel” here is misleading as this has nothing to do with
parallel query, but
rather several operations in a plan
> > especially since the next sentence uses "concurrently" to describe the
> > other case. I think we need a more thorough rewording, perhaps like
> >
> > - Note that for a complex query, several sort or hash operations
> > might be
> > - running in parallel; each operation will gener
Based on the feedback, here is a v1 of the suggested doc changes.
I modified Gurjeets suggestion slightly to make it clear that a specific
query execution could have operations simultaneously using up to
work_mem.
I also added the small hash table memory limit clarification.
Regards,
Sami Ims
Sorry for the late reply.
> additional complexity and a possible lag of progress updates. So if we
> go with the current approach, I think we need to make sure enough (and
> not too many) hash table entries.
The hash table can be set 4 times the size of
max_worker_processes which should give mor
> I think that's an absolute no-go. Adding locking to progress reporting,
> particularly a single central lwlock, is going to *vastly* increase the
> overhead incurred by progress reporting.
Sorry for the late reply.
The usage of the shared memory will be limited
to PARALLEL maintenance operation
>I nevertheless think that's not acceptable. The whole premise of the
> progress
>reporting infrastructure is to be low overhead. It's OK to require locking
> to
>initialize parallel progress reporting, it's definitely not ok to require
>locking to report progress.
Fair point.
>
>Can't the progress data trivially be inferred by the fact that the worker
>completed?
Yes, at some point, this idea was experimented with in
0004-Expose-progress-for-the-vacuuming-indexes-cleanup-ph.patch.
This patch did the calculation in system_views.sql
However, the view is complex an
>At the beginning of a parallel operation, we allocate a chunk of>
>dynamic shared memory which persists even after some or all workers
>have exited. It's only torn down at the end of the parallel operation.
>That seems like the appropriate place to be storing any kind of data
>
Sorry for the delay in response.
> Back then, we were pretty much OK with the amount of space that could
> be wasted even in this case. Actually, how much space are we talking
> about here when a failed truncation happens?
It is a transient waste in space as it will eventually clean up.
> As th
> I believe both cumulative statistics and logs are needed. Logs excel in
> pinpointing specific queries at precise times, while statistics provide
> a broader overview of the situation. Additionally, I often encounter
> situations where clients lack pg_stat_statements and can't restart their
>
> So, I've spent more time on that and applied the simplification today,
> doing as you have suggested to use the head page rather than the tail
> page when the tail XID is ahead of the head XID, but without disabling
> the whole. I've simplified a bit the code and the comments, though,
> while on
Hi,
A recent case in the field in which a database session_authorization is
altered to a non-superuser, non-owner of tables via alter database .. set
session_authorization ..
caused autovacuum to skip tables.
The issue was discovered on 13.10, and the logs show such messages:
warning: skipping
> What is the actual
> use case for such a setting?
I don't have exact details on the use-case, bit this is not a common
use-case.
> Doesn't it risk security problems?
I cannot see how setting it on the database being more problematic than
setting it on a session level.
> I'm rather unimpress
> This looks mostly fine to me modulo "sort or hash". I do see many
> instances of "and/or" in the docs. Maybe that would work better.
"sort or hash operations at the same time" is clear explanation IMO.
This latest version of the patch looks good to me.
Regards,
Sami
Hi,
The proposal by Bertrand in CC to jumble CALL and SET in [1] was
rejected at the time for a more robust solution to jumble DDL.
Michael also in CC made this possible with commit 3db72ebcbe.
The attached patch takes advantage of the jumbling infrastructure
added in the above mentioned commit
> Still this grouping is much better than having thousands of entries
> with different values. I am not sure if we should bother improving
> that more than what you suggest that, especially as FuncExpr->args can
> itself include Const nodes as far as I recall.
I agree.
> As far as the SET command
> I don't really understand what exactly the problem is, or how this fixes
> it. But this doesn't feel right:
As the repro show, false reports of "pg_serial": apparent wraparound”
messages are possible. For a very busy system which checkpoints frequently
and heavy usage of serializable isolation,
> I think the smallest fix here would be to change CheckPointPredicate()
> so that if tailPage > headPage, pass headPage to SimpleLruTruncate()
> instead of tailPage. Or perhaps it should go into the "The SLRU is no
> longer needed" codepath in that case. If tailPage > headPage, the SLRU
> isn't ne
023, at 6:29 PM, Imseih (AWS), Sami wrote:
>
> I added an additional condition to make sure that the tailPage proceeds the
> headPage
> as well.
Hi,
This thread has been quiet for a while, but I'd like to share some
thoughts.
+1 to the idea of improving visibility into parallel worker saturation.
But overall, we should improve parallel processing visibility, so DBAs can
detect trends in parallel usage ( is the workload doing more parallel
>> Currently explain ( analyze ) will give you the "Workers Planned"
>> and "Workers launched". Logging this via auto_explain is possible, so I am
>> not sure we need additional GUCs or debug levels for this info.
>>
>> -> Gather (cost=10430.00..10430.01 rows=2 width=8) (actual tim
>> e=131.826..13
While looking through vacuum code, I noticed that
unlike non-parallel vacuum, parallel vacuum only gets
a failsafe check after an entire index cycle completes.
In vacuumlazy.c, lazy_check_wraparound_failsafe is checked
after every index completes, while in parallel, it is checked
after an entire i
>It makes sense to prefer consistency here, I suppose. The reason why
>we're not consistent is because it was easier not to be, which isn't
>exactly the best reason (nor the worst).
Consistency is the key point here. It is odd that a serial
vacuum may skip the remainder of the indexes
>Yeah, it's a little inconsistent.
Yes, this should be corrected by calling the failsafe
inside the parallel vacuum loops and handling the case by exiting
the loop and parallel vacuum if failsafe kicks in.
>I meant that there should definitely be a check between each round of
>index s
>I don't think any of these progress callbacks should be done while pinning
> a
>buffer and ...
Good point.
>I also don't understand why info->parallel_progress_callback exists? It's
> only
>set to parallel_vacuum_progress_report(). Why make this stuff more
> expensive
>tha
> I think that indexes_total should be 0 also when INDEX_CLEANUP is off.
Patch updated for handling of INDEX_CLEANUP = off, with an update to
the documentation as well.
>I think we don't need to reset it at the end of index vacuuming. There
>is a small window before switching to the nex
>Number of indexes that will be vacuumed or cleaned up. This counter only
>advances when the phase is vacuuming indexes or cleaning up indexes.
I agree, this reads better.
---
-/* Report that we are now vacuuming indexes */
-pgstat_progress_update_param(PROGRES
Doing some work with extended query protocol, I encountered the same
issue that was discussed in [1]. It appears when a client is using
extended query protocol and sends an Execute message to a portal with
max_rows, and a portal is executed multiple times,
pg_stat_statements does not correctly trac
Hi,
Thanks for your reply!
I addressed the latest comments in v23.
1/ cleaned up the asserts as discussed.
2/ used pq_putmessage to send the message on index scan completion.
Thanks
--
Sami Imseih
Amazon Web Services (AWS)
v23-0001-Add-2-new-columns-to-pg_stat_progress_vacuum.-Th.patch
Desc
Thanks for the review!
>+
>+ ParallelVacuumFinish
>+ Waiting for parallel vacuum workers to finish index
>vacuum.
>+
>This change is out-of-date.
That was an oversight. Thanks for catching.
>Total number of indexes that will be vacuumed or cleaned
Thanks!
> I think PROGRESS_VACUUM_INDEXES_TOTAL and
> PROGRESS_VACUUM_INDEXES_PROCESSED are better for consistency. The rest
> looks good to me.
Took care of that in v25.
Regards
--
Sami Imseih
Amazon Web Services
v25-0001-Add-2-new-columns-to-pg_stat_progress_vacuum.-Th.patch
Descript
> One idea would be to add a flag, say report_parallel_vacuum_progress,
> to IndexVacuumInfo struct and expect index AM to check and update the
> parallel index vacuum progress, say every 1GB blocks processed. The
> flag is true only when the leader process is vacuuming an index.
Sorry for the lon
>One idea would be to add a flag, say report_parallel_vacuum_progress,
>to IndexVacuumInfo struct and expect index AM to check and update the
>parallel index vacuum progress, say every 1GB blocks processed. The
>flag is true only when the leader process is vacuuming an index.
>
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