After weeks of troubleshooting, I have come to the conclusion that Debian kernels no longer work on the Via C7. Even newly available motherboards were released over 6 years ago.
- Bug#897930: linux-image-4.9.0-6-686-pae: Random hard lockups ... Ben Elliston
- Bug#897930: linux-image-4.9.0-6-686-pae: Random hard loc... Ben Elliston